Argumentation

Why is argumentation important? 

Young people face an increasingly complex and uncertain future (e.g. mitigating and adapting to climate change, reducing disease and poverty) where advances in science and technology will assist, but ethical, political and social issues may confound decisions about how to proceed.  

If young people are to develop the skills to debate and make decisions about these controversial global issues, they need opportunities in their secondary school science classes to be able to develop, justify and critique their arguments and those of others. 

When students are taught about argumentation in the context of issues such as climate change and genetics, research has demonstrated improved argument quality and critical thinking skills, increased content knowledge, and science engagement and motivation. Content knowledge improves because students use their scientific knowledge in authentic contexts that are of relevance to them. 

What is argumentation? 

Argumentation is the process of developing an argument and is an essential component of critical thinking (i.e. the ability to reason and think logically).  

Although colloquially arguments may be perceived to be adversarial, in philosophy an argument is a statement comprising a claim and reasons, evidence or justifications to support the claim.  

The underlying skills of argumentation in science are: 

1. A basic understanding of the science underpinning the issue
2. Evaluating the source and quality of scientific and non-scientific evidence
3. Considering the perspectives of stakeholders
4. Suspending one’s own judgment
5. Identifying alternative solutions
6. Decision-making
7. Constructing own arguments
8. Critiquing arguments of self and others

The quality and complexity of an argument can be determined by examining the presence of structural components (Toulmin, 2003). A model developed by the philosopher Toulmin is used internationally in science education to teach students how to construct and critique an argument. 

The parts of an argument are: 

• Claim—an assertion.
• Data or evidence—statements that support the assertion.
• Qualifiers—specified conditions under which the claim is correct.
• Backings—underlying assumptions, theories, or generalisations that support the data.
• Rebuttals—arguments that refute opposing claims, data, or backing. 

The following example is an argument about whether to allow performance-enhancing drugs to be used in sports. This topic could be relevant when students are studying forces, body systems, or biochemistry. 

I think we should allow athletes to use performance-enhancing drugs (claim) as long as it does not harm their health (qualifier). Some athletes naturally have high levels of testosterone in their blood (data) and under current rules, they must artificially reduce their levels (data). If it is within the natural levels, then it cannot be harmful (backing). If the drugs were allowed, then more drug companies would make them, and they would be cheaper so all countries could afford them (rebuttal). 

How can argumentation be taught? 

The types of teaching strategies that support the development of argumentation skills are both student-centred (by using contexts that are relevant to students) and teacher-guided (through the use of examples and, identifying and naming the parts of the argument). 

Student-centred opportunities can include collaborative group work, role plays, debates, writing frames, hypotheticals, and position papers.  

Role of the teacher 

The role of the teacher is crucial. Teachers can support students in developing their argumentation skills by: 

• creating a safe learning environment where students can express their views and not be ridiculed.
• encouraging and modelling respectful talking and listening.
• encouraging risk-taking in thinking and suspending judgment.
• modelling critique of arguments and evidence.
• clearly defining and explaining the structural parts of an argument with non-science and science examples.
• encouraging positioning—taking a side or making a decision.
• providing multiple opportunities to practice constructing and critiquing own and others’ arguments orally and in writing.
• using differentiation through scaffolding, literacy support, and time. 

Discuss with your colleagues 

Identify the different parts of argumentation used below: 

I think gene modification should be used, but not to change the baby’s physical appearance like eye colour. If the technology can prevent genetic disorders or disease, then it is a good thing. Why should you change the way the child looks, just to fit the mould of our society? Parents should be happy with the baby they have. It is tampering with nature.  If all humans look the same, then those that are different may be discriminated against.  

How would you introduce argumentation to a class that was accustomed to a teacher-centred directive style of teaching?

How would you adapt the process for diverse students to ensure all experience success? 

References 

Dawson V. (2024) Teachers’ support in developing year 7 students’ argumentation skills about water-based socioscientific issues. International Journal of Science Education, 46(3), 222-239. 

Sampson, V., Enderle, P., Gleim, L., Grooms, J., Southerland, S., Wilson, K. (2014). Argument-driven Inquiry in Biology: Lab Investigations for Grades 9-12. NSTA Press. 

Toulmin, S. (2003). The uses of argument (Updated ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.